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Islam
الاسلام‎
al-’Islām
The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg

The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site
Type Universal religion
Classification Abrahamic
Scripture Quran
Theology Monotheism
Language Classical Arabic
Territory Muslim world
Founder Muhammad
Origin 7th century CE
Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Separations Ahl-e Haqq,[1] Bábism,[2] Baháʼí Faith,[3] Din-i Ilahi, Druzism[4][5]
Number of followers c. 1.8 billion[6] (referred to as Muslims, who comprise the ummah)

Islam (; Arabic: ۘالِإسلَام, al-ʾIslām [ɪsˈlaːm] (listen), transl. »Submission [to God]»)[7][8] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered around the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.[9][10] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims,[11] constitute between 1-1.8 billion globally and are the world’s second-largest religious population behind Christians.[6][12][13]

Islam teaches that God is one and incomparable.[14] Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, among others;[15][16] these earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths.[17] Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation.[18] They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet. The teachings and normative example of Muhammad (sunnah) documented in traditional collected accounts (hadith) provide a secondary constitutional model for Muslims.[19]: 63  Islam teaches of a «Final Judgement» wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (Jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (Jahannam).[20] The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed (Shahada); daily prayers (Salah); almsgiving (Zakat,); fasting (Sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a mandated pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.[21] Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to women’s roles and the environment.[22][23] Prominent religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam in descending order are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[24]

Islam originated in the 7th century in Mecca.[25] Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas especially medicine, mathematics, astronomy, agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. [26][27][28][29][30] The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah).[31]: 125–258 

There are two major Islamic denominations: Sunni Islam (85–90%)[32] and Shia Islam (10–15%).[33][34][35] While Sunni–Shia differences initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically.[36] Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.[37][38] Approximately 12% of the world’s Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country;[39] 31% live in South Asia;[40] 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa.[41] Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe.[42][43] Due largely to a higher fertility rate,[44] Islam is the world’s fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world’s largest religion by the end of the 21st century.[45]

Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. ‘submission [to God]’) is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[46] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[47][48] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means «submitter (to God)» or «one who surrenders (to God)». In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[49][50]

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims’ religion, parallel to Buddha in Buddhism.[51]

Articles of faith

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine decree.[citation needed]

God

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. Usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[52][53][54][55] God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God’s attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning «The Entirely Merciful,» and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning «The Especially Merciful» which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[56][57]

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God’s command as expressed by the wording, «Be, and it is,»[i][58] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[59] He is viewed as a personal god[58] and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[60][61][62]

Angels

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran[63] and hadith.[64] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person’s actions, and taking a person’s soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from ‘light’ (nūr)[65][66][67] or ‘fire’ (nār).[68][69][70][71] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[72][73][74][75] Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires, such as eating and drinking.[76] Some of them, such as Gabriel and Michael, are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in the literature about the Mi’raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[64] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[77]

Books

The Islamic holy books are the records that Muslims believe various prophets received from God through revelations, called wahy. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[78][79][80][81][82][83][excessive citations] while the Quran (lit. ‘Recitation’) is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[84][85][86]

Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl), on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died.[87] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[88] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (suras) which combined contain 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[58][84] Muslim jurists consult the hadith (‘accounts’), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad’s life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[89][90] The set of rules governing proper elocution of recitation is called tajwid. In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[91][92] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[93]

Prophets

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to receive and preach a divine message. Additionally, a prophet delivering a new book to a nation is called a rasul (رسول‎, rasūl), meaning «messenger».[94] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past and that this accounts for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[58]

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet («Seal of the prophets») to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the «normative» example of Muhammad’s life is called the sunnah (literally «trodden path»). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad’s moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[95][96][97] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God’s verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading being: «authentic» or «correct» (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); «good», hasan (حسن, ḥasan); or «weak» (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[98] Another famous source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[99][100][101]

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the «Day of Resurrection» or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة), is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[102][103][104]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: «So whoever does an atom’s weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom’s weight of evil will see it.» The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (كفر, kufr), and dishonesty. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals,[105][106] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[107][108][109][110] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين «Day of Religion»);[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة «the Last Hour»);[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة «The Clatterer»);[iv]

Divine predestination

The concept of divine decree and destiny in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning «power», derives from a root that means «to measure» or «calculating».[111][112][113][114] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase «Insha-Allah» meaning «if God wills» when speaking on future events.[115][116] In addition to loss, gain is also seen as a test of believers – whether they would still recognize that the gain originates only from God.[117]

Acts of worship

There are five obligatory acts of worship – the Shahada declaration of faith, the five daily prayers, the Zakat alms-giving, fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as «The Pillars of Islam» (Arkān al-Islām).[21] Apart from these, Muslims also perform other supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered obligatory.[118]

Testimony

The shahadah,[119] is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is «ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh» (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, «I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.»[120] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[121][122][123]

Prayer

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five compulsory prayers each day. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstancees, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[124][125][126][127]

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study with the Masjid an-Nabawi («Prophetic Mosque») in Medina, Saudi Arabia, having also served as a shelter for the poor.[128] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[129][130]

Charity

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a means of welfare in a Muslim society, characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[131] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat.[132] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God’s bounty[133] and is seen as a purification of one’s excess wealth.[134] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater then global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[135] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much encouraged supererogatory charity.[136][137] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[138]

Fasting

A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.

During the month of Ramadan, it is obligatory for Muslims to fast. The Ramadan fast (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset.[139] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God’s sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is supererogatory.[140]

Pilgrimage

The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the «ḥajj» (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. Pilgrims spend a day and a night on the plains of Mina, then a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat, then spending a night on the plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil,[141] then going to the city of Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham’s wife, Hagar, while she was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[142][143][144] All Muslim men should wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[145][146] Another form of pilgrimage, umrah, is supererogatory and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Medina is also a site of Islamic pilgrimage and Jerusalem, the city of many Islamic prophets, contains the Al-Aqsa Mosque, which used to be the direction of prayer before Mecca.[citation needed]

Quranic recitation and memorization

Muslim men reading the Quran

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran with elocution (tajwid) has been described as an excellent act of worship.[147] Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[148] In Muslim societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.[148] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz («memorizer») who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.[147]

Supplication and remembrance

Supplication to God, called in Arabic ad-duʿāʾ (Arabic: الدعاء  IPA: [duˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging or invoking with an extended index finger.[citation needed]

Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr’) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying ‘in the name of God’ (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[149]

History

A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today’s Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam

Muhammad (610–632)

Born in Mecca in 570, Muhammad was orphaned early in life. New trade routes rapidly transformed Meccan society from a semi-bedouin society to a commercial urban society, leaving out weaker segments of society without protection. He acquired the nickname «trustworthy» (Arabic: الامين), [150] and was sought after as a bank to safeguard valuables and an impartial arbitrator. Affected by the ills of society and after becoming financially secure through marrying his employer, the businesswoman Khadija, he began retreating to a cave in the mountain Jabal al-Nour to contemplate. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel,[151] thus becoming the seal of the prophets sent to mankind, according to Islamic tradition.[80][81][152]

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[153] The Meccan elite profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba and felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves.[154][155][156]

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra («emigration») in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina establishing among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws and agreeing to bar weapons from Medina and to defend it from external threats.[157] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[158] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[159][160] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[161]

Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali[162] – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā’ ar-rāshidūn («Rightly Guided Caliphs»).[163] Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars.[164][165][166][167][168] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,[169] resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires.[170][171] Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad’s widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, asking to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu’awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu’awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali’s decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali’s son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu’awiyah in return for Mu’awiyah not appointing a successor.[172] Mu’awiyah began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid’s forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shia ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr, opposed to a dynastic caliphate were defeated in the Siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[173] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad’s family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.[174]

Abu Bakr’s leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur’an. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[175][176] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[177][178][179] The Kharijites believed there is no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who commits a grave sin becomes an unbeliever. The term is also used to refer to later groups such as Isis.[180] The Murji’ah taught that people’s righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[181] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[182]

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[183] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[184] Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs as it reduced revenue.[182] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official’s possessions,[185] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[182] The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi’a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[186][187]

Classical era (750–1258)

Al-Shafi’i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[188] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh’habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi’i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi’i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja’far al-Sadiq formed the Ja’fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the Tafsir al-Tabari. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf or Sufism.[189][190]

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people’s actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil.[191][a] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, first originated by Wasil ibn Ata.[193] Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu’tasim made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force their position on the majority.[194] They carried out inquisitions with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Mutazila idea of the creation of the Quran and was tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[195] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash’ari founded by Al-Ash’ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle’s metaphysics within Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe, and Maimonides’ work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[196][197]

This era is sometimes called the «Islamic Golden Age».[198][199][200][201][171] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[202][203] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to distinguish the diseases smallpox and measles.[204] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[205][206] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the «world’s first true scientist», in particular regarding his work in optics.[207][208][209][210] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers’ automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[211] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr,[212] while others developed the concept of a function.[213] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[214] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world’s oldest degree-granting university.[215]

The vast Abbasid empire proved impossible to hold together.[216] Soldiers established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids, Samanid and Ghaznavid dynasty.[217] Additionally, the millennialist Isma’ili Shi’a missionary movement rose with the Fatimid dynasty taking control of North Africa[218] and with the Qarmatians sacking Mecca and stealing the Black Stone in their unsuccessful rebellion.[219] In what is called the Shi’a Century, another Ismaili group, the Buyid dynasty conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty, campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the accumulated scholarly opinion of the time notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[220]

Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[221][222] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendents make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[223] Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[224]

Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas.[48][225] Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[226] Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of «assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into… local religious systems»,[227] as illustrated by Muhammad’s appearance in Hindu folklore.[228] The Turks probably found similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.[229] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[b][229] Muslims in China, who were descended from earlier immigrants, were assimilated, sometimes by force, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[231][232]

While cultural influence used to radiate outward from Baghdad, after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Arab influence decreased.[233] Iran and Central Asia, benefiting from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule, flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[234] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model and Jamshīd al-Kāshī’s estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[235]

The introduction of gunpowder weapons led to the rise of large centralized states and the Muslim Gunpowder empires consolidated much of the previously splintered territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire since Murad I’s conquest of Edirne in 1362,[236] and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[237] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[238] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[citation needed]

The religion of the centralized states of the Gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[239] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[240][241] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[242] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja’farism,[243] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[244]

Modern era (18th – 20th centuries)

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[245] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology[245] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[216] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics[246] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[247] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement, called Wahhabi with their self-designation as Muwahiddun, to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[248][249] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[249] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[250][251] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[252] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the nineteenth century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[253] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[254] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[255] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[256][257]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially regarding non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the fifteenth century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century; the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[258] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[259] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented.[260][261] Notable forerunners include Muhammad ‘Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[262] Abul A’la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[263] Similar to contemporary codification, Shariah was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire’s Mecelle code.[264]

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924[265] by the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his secular reforms.[266][267] Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[268]

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[269] Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[270]

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[271][272] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[273] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[274] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[275]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[276][277] In other places religious power was co-opted, such as in Saudi Arabia, where the state monopolized religious scholarship and are often seen as puppets of the state[278] while Egypt nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[279] Salafism was funded for its quietism.[280] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[281] Turkey[282]

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[283] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since they stood out and worshiped their own god[284] and the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[285] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.

The globalization of communication has increased dissemination of religious information. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[286] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[287] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular «televangelist» preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[288][289] More «individualized» interpretations of Islam[290] notably include Liberal Muslims who attempt to reconcile religious traditions with current secular governance[291] and women’s issues.[292]

In the 21st century, the rise of Isil in 2013 presented a new breed of triumphalist extremist Islamist group that seized parts of Iraq and Syria and sought to declare a new medieval caliphate.[293] Rejected as terrorists by the mainstream global Muslim community, the group was forced to resort to insurgency-like tactics in the face of Iranian intervention commanded by Qasem Soleimani in 2014[294][295][296] and a US-led military intervention in 2017 that by 2019 saw almost all of its territorial gains reversed.[297]

Demographics

Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[298]

About 23.4% of the global population, or about 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.[299][6][300] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[301] in 1990 it was 19.9%[41] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[44] It has been estimated that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia,[35] with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[302][303] with 62% of the world’s Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[304][305] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[306][307] Islam in Europe is the second largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.[308] Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as «the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith».[309]

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world’s fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world’s largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[45] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, «due to the young age and high fertility-rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups».[44]

Schools and branches

Sunni

Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[310] The term is a contraction of the phrase «ahl as-sunna wa’l-jamaat», which means «people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community».[311] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi’i.[22][312]

Sunni schools of theology encompass Asharism founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), Maturidi by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE) and traditionalist theology under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). Traditionalist theology is characterized by its adherence to a literal understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah, the belief in the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to reason (kalam) in religious and ethical matters.[313] On the other hand, Maturidism asserts, scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[314] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human’s comprehension. Asharism holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but not from human reason. However, Asharism accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[315]

In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[316] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries’ old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[317] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[317][318]

Shia

Shia Islam, or Shi’ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad’s successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad’s family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[319] Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. Zaidi, the second-oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a ‘fifth school’ of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[320][321][322] The Twelvers, the first and the largest Shia branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. The Ismailis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[323]

Ibadi

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[324] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the Khawarij movement, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, uses chains of narrators from early Islamic history they considered trustworthy but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[325]

An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

Quranism

The Quranists are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Qur’an, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the religious authority, reliability or authenticity of the Hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.[326]

There were first critics of the hadith traditions as early as the time of the scholar Al-Shafi’i; however, their arguments did not find much favor among Muslims. From the 19th century onwards, reformist thinkers like Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi, and later Ghulam Ahmad Parwez in India began to systematically question the hadith and the Islamic tradition.[327] At the same time, there was a long-standing discussion on the sole authority of the Quran in Egypt, initiated by an article by Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi named «Islam is the Quran alone» (al-Islām huwa l-Qurʾān waḥda-hū) in the magazine al-Manār.[328][329] Quranism also took on a political dimension in the 20th century when Muammar al-Gaddafi declared the Quran to be the constitution of Libya.[330] In America, Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist and discoverer of the Quran code (Code 19), which is a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, founded the organization «United Submitters International».[331]

The rejection of the hadith leads in some cases to differences in the way religion is practiced for example in the ritual prayer. While some Quranists traditionally pray five times a day, others reduce the number to three or even two daily prayers. There are also different views on the details of prayer or other pillars of Islam such as zakat, fasting, or the Hajj.[332]

Other denominations

  • Bektashi Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[333] Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th century,[334] such as Shamanism and Animism, mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5%–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[335]
  • The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[336] in India in 1889.[337][338][339][340] Ahmad claimed to be the «Promised Messiah» or «Imam Mahdi» of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,[341] and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement’s inception.[342]

Non-denominational Muslims

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[343][344] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as «just Muslim», although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[345][346][347] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as «just Muslim» make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.[348]

Mysticism

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined Tasawwuf as «a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God», through «intuitive and emotional faculties» that one must be trained to use.[349][350][351][352][353][354] It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Ismaili Shias, whose teachings root in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism,[355] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[356] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[357] emphasized fear of failing God’s expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the best selling poets in America.[358][359].

Sufis reject materialism and ego[360] and regard everything as if it was sent by god alone, Sufi strongly believes in the oneness of god.[361]

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam, just like the sharia.[362] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[363][362] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism.[230](p77)(p24) Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of salafism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[364] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[189] Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.[365][366][367] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[368][369] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[348][370]

Law and jurisprudence

Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[22] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God’s divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[371][372] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[22]

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[373] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[371] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[371] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[371][372] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[374] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[375] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God’s will.[372]

Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī’s courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler’s council and administered criminal law.[371][372] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[372] The Ottoman Empire’s 19th-century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[376] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[372] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[372][377] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[372][377] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women’s rights.[378][379]

Schools of jurisprudence

A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the Ja’fari, Zaidi and Isma’ili madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh («principles of jurisprudence»). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision’s reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[380] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[381]

Society

Religious personages

Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[citation needed]

Religious interpretation is presided over by the ‘ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi.

Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt). The practice of visiting the tombs of prophets and saints is known as ziyarat. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are usually acknowledged informally by the consensus of common people, not by scholars.[citation needed]

Governance

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between «matters of church» and «matters of state»; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Various forms of Islamic jurisprudence therefore rule on matters than in other societal context might be considered the preserve of the state. Terms traditionally used to refer to Muslim leaders include Caliph and Sultan, and terms associated with traditionally Muslim states include Caliphate, Emirate, Imamate and Khanate (e.g. the United Arab Emirates).[citation needed]

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[382] Attempts to comply with shariah has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[383] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[384] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which substantially protected them from the 2008 financial crisis.[385] The state used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[386] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[387][388][389] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[390]

Jihad means «to strive or struggle [in the way of God]» and, in its broadest sense, is «exerting one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation».[391] This could refer to one’s striving to attain religious and moral perfection[392][393][394] with the Shia and Sufis in particular, distinguishing between the «greater jihad», which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the «lesser jihad», defined as warfare.[395][396] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[391][392] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[395][396] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[397] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[396] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi’s occultation is 868 CE.[398][399]

Daily and family life

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette and this includes greeting others with «as-salamu ‘alaykum» («peace be unto you»), saying bismillah («in the name of God») before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking.[citation needed]

Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[400] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself.[401][402][403] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[404][405] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[c][407] Gold and silk for men are prohibited and are seen as extravagant.[408] Haya, often translated as «shame» or «modesty», is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[409] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[410][411][412]
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[413][414] However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives at the same time. There are also cultural variations in weddings.[415] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[416]

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[417] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[418] The child’s head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[418] Male circumcision is practised. Respecting and obeying one’s parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[419][420]

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[421] A «funeral prayer» called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[422] Regarding inheritance, a son’s share is double that of a daughter’s.[v]

Khitan, the Islamic religious rite of circumcision, is near-universal in the Muslim world.[423] It is seen as obligatory or is highly recommended by all Islamic schools of jurisprudence.[424] It is considered a sign of belonging to the wider Muslim community (Ummah).[425]

Arts and culture

The term «Islamic culture» can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[426] Finally, «Islamic civilization» may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[427] sometimes referred to as «Islamicate».[citation needed]

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[428] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[429] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[430] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[citation needed]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad’s fortunes.[431] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الف) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[432]

  • 15th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh

  • Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali

  • Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan

  • The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region

    The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region

  • Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran

    Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi’s tomb in Shiraz, Iran

Derived religions

Some movements, such as the Druze,[433][434][435][436][437] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri Baha’u’llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[438] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late-fifteenth-century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[439]

Criticism

Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam’s formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[441] Later, criticism from the Muslim world itself appeared, as well as from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[442][443]

Christian writers criticized Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality. Islam’s sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion. Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of Irenaeus, the doctrines of the former Manichaean, Augustine of Hippo, led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew.[444]

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[445] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[446] Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[446]

Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[447] In the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam’s influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[448] Both in his public and personal life, others objected to the morality of Muhammad, therefore also the sunnah as a role model.[449]

See also

  • Glossary of Islam
  • Index of Islam-related articles
  • Islamic mythology
  • Islamic studies
  • Major religious groups
  • Outline of Islam

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ «Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God’s determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[192]
  2. ^ «In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century.[230](p20–22)
  3. ^ Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.[406]

Qur’an and hadith

  1. ^ Q2:117 Quran 2:117
  2. ^ Quran 1:4;
  3. ^ Quran 6:31;
  4. ^ Quran 101:1
  5. ^ Quran 4:11.

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  5. ^ Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 9780199862634. While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is consider distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice… Most Druze do not identify as Muslims…
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Further reading

  • Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble ISBN 978-0-359-67265-3). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
  • Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur’an, and this religion’s affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to «dialogue» on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
  • Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). «Islam». In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–258. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
  • Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
  • Arberry, A.J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
  • Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4.
  • Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
  • Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
  • Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
  • Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5.
  • Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.
  • Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
  • Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
  • Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
  • Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0.
  • Schimmel, Annemarie (1994). Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3.
  • Schuon, Frithjof (1963). Understanding Islam (3rd ed.). Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0941532242.
  • Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the «World Values Survey». Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
  • Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. Prepublication text available at: Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). «The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world». ResearchGate.
  • Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.
Источник
Islam
الاسلام‎
al-’Islām
The Kaaba during Hajj.jpg

The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest Islamic site
Type Universal religion
Classification Abrahamic
Scripture Quran
Theology Monotheism
Language Classical Arabic
Territory Muslim world
Founder Muhammad
Origin 7th century CE
Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
Separations Ahl-e Haqq,[1] Bábism,[2] Baháʼí Faith,[3] Din-i Ilahi, Druzism[4][5]
Number of followers c. 1.8 billion[6] (referred to as Muslims, who comprise the ummah)

Islam (; Arabic: ۘالِإسلَام, al-ʾIslām [ɪsˈlaːm] (listen), transl. »Submission [to God]»)[7][8] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered around the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad.[9][10] Adherents of Islam, called Muslims,[11] constitute between 1-1.8 billion globally and are the world’s second-largest religious population behind Christians.[6][12][13]

Islam teaches that God is one and incomparable.[14] Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, among others;[15][16] these earlier revelations are attributed to Judaism and Christianity, which are regarded in Islam as spiritual predecessor faiths.[17] Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation.[18] They also consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet. The teachings and normative example of Muhammad (sunnah) documented in traditional collected accounts (hadith) provide a secondary constitutional model for Muslims.[19]: 63  Islam teaches of a «Final Judgement» wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (Jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (Jahannam).[20] The Five Pillars—considered obligatory acts of worship—comprise the Islamic oath and creed (Shahada); daily prayers (Salah); almsgiving (Zakat,); fasting (Sawm) in the month of Ramadan; and a mandated pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.[21] Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to women’s roles and the environment.[22][23] Prominent religious festivals include Eid al-Fitr, and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam in descending order are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Al-Masjid an-Nabawi in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[24]

Islam originated in the 7th century in Mecca.[25] Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, mostly during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, much of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas especially medicine, mathematics, astronomy, agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics. [26][27][28][29][30] The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah).[31]: 125–258 

There are two major Islamic denominations: Sunni Islam (85–90%)[32] and Shia Islam (10–15%).[33][34][35] While Sunni–Shia differences initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically.[36] Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries.[37][38] Approximately 12% of the world’s Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country;[39] 31% live in South Asia;[40] 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa.[41] Sizable Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe.[42][43] Due largely to a higher fertility rate,[44] Islam is the world’s fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world’s largest religion by the end of the 21st century.[45]

Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. ‘submission [to God]’) is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[46] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[47][48] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb form, and means «submitter (to God)» or «one who surrenders (to God)». In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[49][50]

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims’ religion, parallel to Buddha in Buddhism.[51]

Articles of faith

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine decree.[citation needed]

God

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. Usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[52][53][54][55] God is seen as incomparable and without partners such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating partners to God or attributing God’s attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is seen as transcendent of creation and so is beyond comprehension. Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning «The Entirely Merciful,» and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning «The Especially Merciful» which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[56][57]

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God’s command as expressed by the wording, «Be, and it is,»[i][58] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[59] He is viewed as a personal god[58] and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[60][61][62]

Angels

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran[63] and hadith.[64] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person’s actions, and taking a person’s soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from ‘light’ (nūr)[65][66][67] or ‘fire’ (nār).[68][69][70][71] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[72][73][74][75] Common characteristics for angels are their missing needs for bodily desires, such as eating and drinking.[76] Some of them, such as Gabriel and Michael, are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in the literature about the Mi’raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[64] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[77]

Books

The Islamic holy books are the records that Muslims believe various prophets received from God through revelations, called wahy. Muslims believe that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), had become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[78][79][80][81][82][83][excessive citations] while the Quran (lit. ‘Recitation’) is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[84][85][86]

Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl), on multiple occasions between 610 CE and 632, the year Muhammad died.[87] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the prime method of transmission was orally through memorization.[88] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (suras) which combined contain 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[58][84] Muslim jurists consult the hadith (‘accounts’), or the written record of Prophet Muhammad’s life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[89][90] The set of rules governing proper elocution of recitation is called tajwid. In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[91][92] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[93]

Prophets

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to receive and preach a divine message. Additionally, a prophet delivering a new book to a nation is called a rasul (رسول‎, rasūl), meaning «messenger».[94] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past and that this accounts for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[58]

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet («Seal of the prophets») to convey the completed message of Islam. In Islam, the «normative» example of Muhammad’s life is called the sunnah (literally «trodden path»). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad’s moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[95][96][97] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God’s verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading being: «authentic» or «correct» (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); «good», hasan (حسن, ḥasan); or «weak» (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[98] Another famous source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[99][100][101]

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the «Day of Resurrection» or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة), is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as in the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[102][103][104]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell). The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: «So whoever does an atom’s weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom’s weight of evil will see it.» The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief in God (كفر, kufr), and dishonesty. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals,[105][106] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[107][108][109][110] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين «Day of Religion»);[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة «the Last Hour»);[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة «The Clatterer»);[iv]

Divine predestination

The concept of divine decree and destiny in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning «power», derives from a root that means «to measure» or «calculating».[111][112][113][114] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase «Insha-Allah» meaning «if God wills» when speaking on future events.[115][116] In addition to loss, gain is also seen as a test of believers – whether they would still recognize that the gain originates only from God.[117]

Acts of worship

There are five obligatory acts of worship – the Shahada declaration of faith, the five daily prayers, the Zakat alms-giving, fasting during Ramadan and the Hajj pilgrimage – collectively known as «The Pillars of Islam» (Arkān al-Islām).[21] Apart from these, Muslims also perform other supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered obligatory.[118]

Testimony

The shahadah,[119] is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is «ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh» (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, «I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God.»[120] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[121][122][123]

Prayer

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five compulsory prayers each day. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state ritual purity achieved by means of the either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstancees, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[124][125][126][127]

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study with the Masjid an-Nabawi («Prophetic Mosque») in Medina, Saudi Arabia, having also served as a shelter for the poor.[128] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[129][130]

Charity

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a means of welfare in a Muslim society, characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[131] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat.[132] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God’s bounty[133] and is seen as a purification of one’s excess wealth.[134] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater then global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[135] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much encouraged supererogatory charity.[136][137] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[138]

Fasting

A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.

During the month of Ramadan, it is obligatory for Muslims to fast. The Ramadan fast (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset.[139] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God’s sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is supererogatory.[140]

Pilgrimage

The obligatory Islamic pilgrimage, called the «ḥajj» (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. Pilgrims spend a day and a night on the plains of Mina, then a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat, then spending a night on the plain of Muzdalifah; then moving to Jamarat, symbolically stoning the Devil,[141] then going to the city of Mecca and walking seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, then walking seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah recounting the steps of Abraham’s wife, Hagar, while she was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[142][143][144] All Muslim men should wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[145][146] Another form of pilgrimage, umrah, is supererogatory and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Medina is also a site of Islamic pilgrimage and Jerusalem, the city of many Islamic prophets, contains the Al-Aqsa Mosque, which used to be the direction of prayer before Mecca.[citation needed]

Quranic recitation and memorization

Muslim men reading the Quran

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Reciting the Quran with elocution (tajwid) has been described as an excellent act of worship.[147] Pious Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[148] In Muslim societies, any social program generally begins with the recitation of the Quran.[148] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz («memorizer») who, it is said, will be able to intercede for ten people on the Last Judgment Day.[147]

Supplication and remembrance

Supplication to God, called in Arabic ad-duʿāʾ (Arabic: الدعاء  IPA: [duˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging or invoking with an extended index finger.[citation needed]

Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr’) refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying ‘in the name of God’ (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[149]

History

A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today’s Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred Mosque in Islam

Muhammad (610–632)

Born in Mecca in 570, Muhammad was orphaned early in life. New trade routes rapidly transformed Meccan society from a semi-bedouin society to a commercial urban society, leaving out weaker segments of society without protection. He acquired the nickname «trustworthy» (Arabic: الامين), [150] and was sought after as a bank to safeguard valuables and an impartial arbitrator. Affected by the ills of society and after becoming financially secure through marrying his employer, the businesswoman Khadija, he began retreating to a cave in the mountain Jabal al-Nour to contemplate. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad reported receiving revelations from God, conveyed to him through the archangel Gabriel,[151] thus becoming the seal of the prophets sent to mankind, according to Islamic tradition.[80][81][152]

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[153] The Meccan elite profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba and felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves.[154][155][156]

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra («emigration») in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina establishing among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws and agreeing to bar weapons from Medina and to defend it from external threats.[157] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[158] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[159][160] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[161]

Caliphate and civil strife (632–750)

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali[162] – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā’ ar-rāshidūn («Rightly Guided Caliphs»).[163] Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars.[164][165][166][167][168] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,[169] resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires.[170][171] Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad’s widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, asking to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu’awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu’awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali’s decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali’s son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu’awiyah in return for Mu’awiyah not appointing a successor.[172] Mu’awiyah began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid’s forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shia ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr, opposed to a dynastic caliphate were defeated in the Siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[173] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad’s family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.[174]

Abu Bakr’s leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Qur’an. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[175][176] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[177][178][179] The Kharijites believed there is no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who commits a grave sin becomes an unbeliever. The term is also used to refer to later groups such as Isis.[180] The Murji’ah taught that people’s righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[181] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[182]

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[183] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[184] Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs as it reduced revenue.[182] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official’s possessions,[185] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[182] The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi’a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[186][187]

Classical era (750–1258)

Al-Shafi’i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[188] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Bukhari and Muslim compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh’habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi’i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi’i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja’far al-Sadiq formed the Ja’fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, that became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam, the Tafsir al-Tabari. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Tasawwuf or Sufism.[189][190]

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people’s actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil.[191][a] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, first originated by Wasil ibn Ata.[193] Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu’tasim made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force their position on the majority.[194] They carried out inquisitions with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Mutazila idea of the creation of the Quran and was tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[195] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash’ari founded by Al-Ash’ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle’s metaphysics within Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe, and Maimonides’ work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[196][197]

This era is sometimes called the «Islamic Golden Age».[198][199][200][201][171] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[202][203] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to distinguish the diseases smallpox and measles.[204] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[205][206] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the «world’s first true scientist», in particular regarding his work in optics.[207][208][209][210] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers’ automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[211] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr,[212] while others developed the concept of a function.[213] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[214] The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world’s oldest degree-granting university.[215]

The vast Abbasid empire proved impossible to hold together.[216] Soldiers established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids, Samanid and Ghaznavid dynasty.[217] Additionally, the millennialist Isma’ili Shi’a missionary movement rose with the Fatimid dynasty taking control of North Africa[218] and with the Qarmatians sacking Mecca and stealing the Black Stone in their unsuccessful rebellion.[219] In what is called the Shi’a Century, another Ismaili group, the Buyid dynasty conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty, campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the accumulated scholarly opinion of the time notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[220]

Religious missions converted Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[221][222] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendents make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[223] Many Muslims also went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[224]

Pre-Modern era (1258–18th century)

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders, Islam spread into new areas.[48][225] Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[226] Conversion to Islam, however, was not a sudden abandonment of old religious practices; rather, it was typically a matter of «assimilating Islamic rituals, cosmologies, and literatures into… local religious systems»,[227] as illustrated by Muhammad’s appearance in Hindu folklore.[228] The Turks probably found similarities between Sufi rituals and Shaman practices.[229] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[b][229] Muslims in China, who were descended from earlier immigrants, were assimilated, sometimes by force, by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.[231][232]

While cultural influence used to radiate outward from Baghdad, after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Arab influence decreased.[233] Iran and Central Asia, benefiting from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule, flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[234] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model and Jamshīd al-Kāshī’s estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[235]

The introduction of gunpowder weapons led to the rise of large centralized states and the Muslim Gunpowder empires consolidated much of the previously splintered territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire since Murad I’s conquest of Edirne in 1362,[236] and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[237] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[238] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[citation needed]

The religion of the centralized states of the Gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[239] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[240][241] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, help spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[242] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja’farism,[243] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[244]

Modern era (18th – 20th centuries)

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[245] rejecting philosophical approaches in favor of simpler theology[245] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[216] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics[246] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[247] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement, called Wahhabi with their self-designation as Muwahiddun, to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[248][249] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[249] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[250][251] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[252] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the nineteenth century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[253] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[254] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[255] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[256][257]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially regarding non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the fifteenth century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century; the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[258] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[259] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture-oriented.[260][261] Notable forerunners include Muhammad ‘Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[262] Abul A’la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[263] Similar to contemporary codification, Shariah was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire’s Mecelle code.[264]

The Ottoman Empire disintegrated after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924[265] by the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his secular reforms.[266][267] Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[268]

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[269] Migration from Syria and Lebanon was the biggest contributor to the Muslim population in Latin America. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[270]

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[271][272] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[273] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[274] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[275]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[276][277] In other places religious power was co-opted, such as in Saudi Arabia, where the state monopolized religious scholarship and are often seen as puppets of the state[278] while Egypt nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[279] Salafism was funded for its quietism.[280] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[281] Turkey[282]

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[283] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since they stood out and worshiped their own god[284] and the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[285] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.

The globalization of communication has increased dissemination of religious information. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[286] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[287] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular «televangelist» preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[288][289] More «individualized» interpretations of Islam[290] notably include Liberal Muslims who attempt to reconcile religious traditions with current secular governance[291] and women’s issues.[292]

In the 21st century, the rise of Isil in 2013 presented a new breed of triumphalist extremist Islamist group that seized parts of Iraq and Syria and sought to declare a new medieval caliphate.[293] Rejected as terrorists by the mainstream global Muslim community, the group was forced to resort to insurgency-like tactics in the face of Iranian intervention commanded by Qasem Soleimani in 2014[294][295][296] and a US-led military intervention in 2017 that by 2019 saw almost all of its territorial gains reversed.[297]

Demographics

Muslim distribution worldwide, based on latest available data[298]

About 23.4% of the global population, or about 1.8 billion people, are Muslims.[299][6][300] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[301] in 1990 it was 19.9%[41] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[44] It has been estimated that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia,[35] with a minority belonging to other sects. Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[302][303] with 62% of the world’s Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[304][305] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[306][307] Islam in Europe is the second largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005.[308] Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as «the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith».[309]

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world’s fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world’s largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[45] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, «due to the young age and high fertility-rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups».[44]

Schools and branches

Sunni

Sunni Islam or Sunnism is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[310] The term is a contraction of the phrase «ahl as-sunna wa’l-jamaat», which means «people of the sunna (the traditions of the prophet Muhammad) and the community».[311] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi’i.[22][312]

Sunni schools of theology encompass Asharism founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), Maturidi by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE) and traditionalist theology under the leadership of Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). Traditionalist theology is characterized by its adherence to a literal understanding of the Quran and the Sunnah, the belief in the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to reason (kalam) in religious and ethical matters.[313] On the other hand, Maturidism asserts, scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[314] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human’s comprehension. Asharism holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but not from human reason. However, Asharism accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[315]

In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[316] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries’ old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[317] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[317][318]

Shia

Shia Islam, or Shi’ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination. Shias, or Shiites, split with Sunnis over Muhammad’s successor as leader, who the Shia believed must be from certain descendants of Muhammad’s family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[319] Some of the first Imams are revered by all Shia groups and Sunnis, such as Ali. Zaidi, the second-oldest branch, reject special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a ‘fifth school’ of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[320][321][322] The Twelvers, the first and the largest Shia branch, believe in twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. The Ismailis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have split into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[323]

Ibadi

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~ 0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[324] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the Khawarij movement, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. Unlike most Kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, uses chains of narrators from early Islamic history they considered trustworthy but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[325]

An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

Quranism

The Quranists are Muslims who generally believe that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Qur’an, rejecting the Sunnah, thus partially or completely doubting the religious authority, reliability or authenticity of the Hadith literature, which they claim are fabricated.[326]

There were first critics of the hadith traditions as early as the time of the scholar Al-Shafi’i; however, their arguments did not find much favor among Muslims. From the 19th century onwards, reformist thinkers like Sayyid Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi, and later Ghulam Ahmad Parwez in India began to systematically question the hadith and the Islamic tradition.[327] At the same time, there was a long-standing discussion on the sole authority of the Quran in Egypt, initiated by an article by Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi named «Islam is the Quran alone» (al-Islām huwa l-Qurʾān waḥda-hū) in the magazine al-Manār.[328][329] Quranism also took on a political dimension in the 20th century when Muammar al-Gaddafi declared the Quran to be the constitution of Libya.[330] In America, Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist and discoverer of the Quran code (Code 19), which is a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, founded the organization «United Submitters International».[331]

The rejection of the hadith leads in some cases to differences in the way religion is practiced for example in the ritual prayer. While some Quranists traditionally pray five times a day, others reduce the number to three or even two daily prayers. There are also different views on the details of prayer or other pillars of Islam such as zakat, fasting, or the Hajj.[332]

Other denominations

  • Bektashi Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[333] Alevism incorporates Turkish beliefs present during the 14th century,[334] such as Shamanism and Animism, mixed with Shias and Sufi beliefs, adopted by some Turkish tribes. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5%–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[335]
  • The Ahmadiyya movement was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad[336] in India in 1889.[337][338][339][340] Ahmad claimed to be the «Promised Messiah» or «Imam Mahdi» of prophecy. Today the group has 10 to 20 million practitioners, but is rejected by most Muslims as heretical,[341] and Ahmadis have been subject to religious persecution and discrimination since the movement’s inception.[342]

Non-denominational Muslims

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[343][344] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as «just Muslim», although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[345][346][347] The Pew Research Center reports that respondents self-identifying as «just Muslim» make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identify in this way.[348]

Mysticism

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined Tasawwuf as «a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God», through «intuitive and emotional faculties» that one must be trained to use.[349][350][351][352][353][354] It is not a sect of Islam and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Ismaili Shias, whose teachings root in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism,[355] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy have developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[356] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[357] emphasized fear of failing God’s expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi, still one of the best selling poets in America.[358][359].

Sufis reject materialism and ego[360] and regard everything as if it was sent by god alone, Sufi strongly believes in the oneness of god.[361]

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam, just like the sharia.[362] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[363][362] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period, was more or less Sufism.[230](p77)(p24) Popular devotional practices such as the veneration of Sufi saints have been viewed as innovations from the original religion from followers of salafism, who have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centered around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[364] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[189] Sufi influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement defends Sufi practices and beliefs with over 200 million followers in south Asia.[365][366][367] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[368][369] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[348][370]

Law and jurisprudence

Sharia is the religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition.[22] It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith. In Arabic, the term sharīʿah refers to God’s divine law and is contrasted with fiqh, which refers to its scholarly interpretations.[371][372] The manner of its application in modern times has been a subject of dispute between Muslim traditionalists and reformists.[22]

Traditional theory of Islamic jurisprudence recognizes four sources of sharia: the Quran, sunnah (Hadith and Sira), qiyas (analogical reasoning), and ijma (juridical consensus).[373] Different legal schools developed methodologies for deriving sharia rulings from scriptural sources using a process known as ijtihad.[371] Traditional jurisprudence distinguishes two principal branches of law,ʿibādāt (rituals) and muʿāmalāt (social relations), which together comprise a wide range of topics.[371] Its rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[371][372] Forgiveness is much celebrated in Islam[374] and, in criminal law, while imposing a penalty on an offender in proportion to their offense is considered permissible; forgiving the offender is better. To go one step further by offering a favor to the offender is regarded as the peak of excellence.[375] Some areas of sharia overlap with the Western notion of law while others correspond more broadly to living life in accordance with God’s will.[372]

Historically, sharia was interpreted by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwa) were taken into account by ruler-appointed judges who presided over qāḍī’s courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler’s council and administered criminal law.[371][372] In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[372] The Ottoman Empire’s 19th-century Tanzimat reforms lead to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[376] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[372] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[372][377] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[372][377] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women’s rights.[378][379]

Schools of jurisprudence

A school of jurisprudence is referred to as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The four major Sunni schools are the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali madhahs while the three major Shia schools are the Ja’fari, Zaidi and Isma’ili madhahib. Each differs in their methodology, called Usul al-fiqh («principles of jurisprudence»). The following of decisions by a religious expert without necessarily examining the decision’s reasoning is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid literally refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[380] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[381]

Society

Religious personages

Islam, like Judaism, has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[citation needed]

Religious interpretation is presided over by the ‘ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi.

Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt). The practice of visiting the tombs of prophets and saints is known as ziyarat. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are usually acknowledged informally by the consensus of common people, not by scholars.[citation needed]

Governance

Mainstream Islamic law does not distinguish between «matters of church» and «matters of state»; the scholars function as both jurists and theologians. Various forms of Islamic jurisprudence therefore rule on matters than in other societal context might be considered the preserve of the state. Terms traditionally used to refer to Muslim leaders include Caliph and Sultan, and terms associated with traditionally Muslim states include Caliphate, Emirate, Imamate and Khanate (e.g. the United Arab Emirates).[citation needed]

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[382] Attempts to comply with shariah has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[383] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[384] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which substantially protected them from the 2008 financial crisis.[385] The state used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each man, woman and child getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[386] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[387][388][389] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[390]

Jihad means «to strive or struggle [in the way of God]» and, in its broadest sense, is «exerting one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation».[391] This could refer to one’s striving to attain religious and moral perfection[392][393][394] with the Shia and Sufis in particular, distinguishing between the «greater jihad», which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the «lesser jihad», defined as warfare.[395][396] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[391][392] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[395][396] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[397] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[396] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi’s occultation is 868 CE.[398][399]

Daily and family life

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette and this includes greeting others with «as-salamu ‘alaykum» («peace be unto you»), saying bismillah («in the name of God») before meals, and using only the right hand for eating and drinking.[citation needed]

Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[400] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for themself.[401][402][403] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[404][405] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[c][407] Gold and silk for men are prohibited and are seen as extravagant.[408] Haya, often translated as «shame» or «modesty», is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[409] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[410][411][412]
Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[413][414] However, Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives at the same time. There are also cultural variations in weddings.[415] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[416]

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[417] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[418] The child’s head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[418] Male circumcision is practised. Respecting and obeying one’s parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[419][420]

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words. Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[421] A «funeral prayer» called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[422] Regarding inheritance, a son’s share is double that of a daughter’s.[v]

Khitan, the Islamic religious rite of circumcision, is near-universal in the Muslim world.[423] It is seen as obligatory or is highly recommended by all Islamic schools of jurisprudence.[424] It is considered a sign of belonging to the wider Muslim community (Ummah).[425]

Arts and culture

The term «Islamic culture» can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[426] Finally, «Islamic civilization» may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[427] sometimes referred to as «Islamicate».[citation needed]

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[428] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[429] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[430] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[citation needed]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad’s fortunes.[431] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الف) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[432]

  • 15th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh

  • Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali

  • Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan

  • The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region

    The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region

  • Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran

    Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi’s tomb in Shiraz, Iran

Derived religions

Some movements, such as the Druze,[433][434][435][436][437] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial. Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century. Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid ‘Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn ‘Ali Nuri Baha’u’llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[438] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late-fifteenth-century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[439]

Criticism

Criticism of Islam has existed since Islam’s formative stages. Early criticism came from Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[441] Later, criticism from the Muslim world itself appeared, as well as from Jewish writers and from ecclesiastical Christians.[442][443]

Christian writers criticized Islamic salvation optimism and its carnality. Islam’s sensual descriptions of paradise led many Christians to conclude that Islam was not a spiritual religion. Although sensual pleasure was also present in early Christianity, as seen in the writings of Irenaeus, the doctrines of the former Manichaean, Augustine of Hippo, led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew.[444]

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[445] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[446] Here, Muhammad appears in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[446]

Other criticisms focus on the question of human rights in modern Muslim-majority countries, and the treatment of women in Islamic law and practice.[447] In the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam’s influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[448] Both in his public and personal life, others objected to the morality of Muhammad, therefore also the sunnah as a role model.[449]

See also

  • Glossary of Islam
  • Index of Islam-related articles
  • Islamic mythology
  • Islamic studies
  • Major religious groups
  • Outline of Islam

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ «Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God’s determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[192]
  2. ^ «In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the sixtheenth century.[230](p20–22)
  3. ^ Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.[406]

Qur’an and hadith

  1. ^ Q2:117 Quran 2:117
  2. ^ Quran 1:4;
  3. ^ Quran 6:31;
  4. ^ Quran 101:1
  5. ^ Quran 4:11.

Citations

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  2. ^ Browne, Edward G. (1889). Bábism.
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  5. ^ Yazbeck Haddad, Yvonne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of American Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 142. ISBN 9780199862634. While they appear parallel to those of normative Islam, in the Druze religion they are different in meaning and interpretation. The religion is consider distinct from the Ismaili as well as from other Muslims belief and practice… Most Druze do not identify as Muslims…
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  • Turner, Bryan S. (1998). Weber and Islam. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17458-9.
  • Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53906-7.
  • Watt, W. Montgomery (1973). The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. University Press Edinburgh. ISBN 978-0-85224-245-2.
  • — (1974). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0.
  • Weiss, Bernard G. (2002). Studies in Islamic Legal Theory. Boston: Brill Academic publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12066-2.

Encyclopedias and dictionaries

  • Gardet, L.; Jomier, J. «Islām». In Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.) (2012). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0387
  • McNeill, William H.; Bentley, Jerry H.; Christian, David, eds. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
  • Oussani, Gabriel, ed. (1911). The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  • Lagasse, Paul; Goldman, Lora; Hobson, Archie; Norton, Susan R., eds. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). Gale Group. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
  • Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  • Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (1999). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-2414-1.
  • Fahlbusch, Erwin; et al., eds. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 2. Brill Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11695-5.
  • John Bowden, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Christianity (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-522393-4.
  • Houtsma, M.T.; Arnold, T.W.; Basset, R.; Hartmann, R., eds. (1913–1936). Encyclopaedia of Islam (1st ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
  • Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (2012). «Encyclopaedia of Islam». Encyclopaedia of Islam Online (2nd ed.). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. ISSN 1573-3912.
  • Bearman, P.J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
  • Martin, Richard C., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Macmillan Reference Books. Thomson-Gale. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
  • McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (n.d.). Encyclopaedia of the Qur’an Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
  • McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2002). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 2. Brill Academic Publishers.
  • McAuliffe, Jane Dammen, ed. (2003). Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān. Vol. 3. Brill Academic Publishers.
  • Salamone, Frank, ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Religious Rites, Rituals, and Festivals. Routledge Encyclopedias of Religion and Society. Vol. 6 (1st ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-94180-8. JSTOR j.ctt1jd94wq.
  • Glassé, Cyril, ed. (2003). The New Encyclopedia of Islam. Revised Edition of the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam. AltaMira Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6.
  • Esposito, John, ed. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001 – via Oxford Reference.
  • Esposito, John, ed. (2004). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975726-8.
  • Leaman, Oliver, ed. (2006). The Qur’an: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.

Further reading

  • Encyclopedia of Sahih Al-Bukhari by Arabic Virtual Translation Center (New York 2019, Barnes & Noble ISBN 978-0-359-67265-3). The foundation of Islam: from revelation to tawhid.
  • Abdul-Haqq, Abdiyah Akbar (1980). Sharing Your Faith with a Muslim. Minneapolis: Bethany House Publishers. N.B. Presents the genuine doctrines and concepts of Islam and of the Holy Qur’an, and this religion’s affinities with Christianity and its Sacred Scriptures, in order to «dialogue» on the basis of what both faiths really teach. ISBN 0-87123-553-6
  • Ahmad, Imad-ad-Dean (2008). «Islam». In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 256–258. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n155. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
  • Akyol, Mustafa (2011). Islam Without Extremes (1st ed.). W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07086-6.
  • Arberry, A.J. (1996). The Koran Interpreted: A Translation (1st ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-684-82507-6.
  • Cragg, Kenneth (1975). The House of Islam, in The Religious Life of Man Series. Second ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company 1975. xiii, 145 p. ISBN 0-8221-0139-4.
  • Hourani, Albert (1991). Islam in European Thought. First pbk. ed. Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1992, cop. 1991. xi, 199 p. ISBN 0-521-42120-9; alternative ISBN on back cover, 0-521-42120-0.
  • Khan, Muhammad Muhsin; Al-Hilali Khan; Muhammad Taqi-ud-Din (1999). Noble Quran (1st ed.). Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-9960-740-79-9.
  • Khanbaghi, A, (2006). The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran. I. B. Tauris.
  • Khavari, Farid A. (1990). Oil and Islam: the Ticking Bomb. First ed. Malibu, Calif.: Roundtable Publications. viii, 277 p., ill. with maps and charts. ISBN 0-915677-55-5.
  • Kramer, Martin, ed. (1999). The Jewish Discovery of Islam: Studies in Honor of Bernard Lewis. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-965-224-040-8.
  • Kuban, Dogan (1974). Muslim Religious Architecture. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-03813-4.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1994). Islam and the West. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509061-1.
  • Lewis, Bernard (1996). Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510283-3.
  • Mubarkpuri, Saifur-Rahman (2002). The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Prophet. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-071-0.
  • Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). History of Islam. Dar-us-Salam Publications. ISBN 978-1-59144-034-5.
  • Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0.
  • Schimmel, Annemarie (1994). Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3.
  • Schuon, Frithjof (1963). Understanding Islam (3rd ed.). Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0941532242.
  • Tausch, Arno (2009). What 1.3 Billion Muslims Really Think: An Answer to a Recent Gallup Study, Based on the «World Values Survey». Foreword Mansoor Moaddel, Eastern Michigan University (1st ed.). Nova Science Publishers, New York. ISBN 978-1-60692-731-1.
  • Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (2015). The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world (1st ed.). New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62948-899-8. Prepublication text available at: Tausch, Arno; Heshmati, Almas; Karoui, Hichem (January 2014). «The political algebra of global value change. General models and implications for the Muslim world». ResearchGate.
  • Walker, Benjamin (1998). Foundations of Islam: The Making of a World Faith. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-1038-3.
Источник

ислам

  • 1
    принимать ислам

    Русско-Арабский словарь > принимать ислам

См. также в других словарях:

  • ИСЛАМ —         [араб., букв. предание себя (богу), покорность], мусульманство, одна из трёх мировых религий наряду с буддизмом и христианством. Возникла в Хиджазе (внач. 7 в.) среди араб. племён Зап. Аравии, в условиях разложения патриархально родового… …   Философская энциклопедия

  • Ислам — предание себя Богу, покорность. Так называется монотеистическая (авраамическая) религия, истоки которой непосредственно восходят к самым древнейшим временам. В окончательном виде эта религия была представлена в проповедях пророка Мухаммада,… …   Ислам. Энциклопедический словарь.

  • ИСЛАМ — [арабск.] одна из мировых религий наряду с христианством (ХРИСТИАНСТВО) и буддизмом (БУДДИЗМ); религия мусульман, вера в Аллаха как единого Бога и в его пророка Мухаммада. То же, что МУСУЛЬМАНСТВО (МАГОМЕТАНСТВО). Словарь иностранных слов. Комлев …   Словарь иностранных слов русского языка

  • ислам — а, м. islame m. <араб. aslama. Магометанская религия; мусульманство. БАС 1. Ислам или исламизм. Ян. 1803. Религиозное учение Магомета, возникшее в 622 г. по Р. Х. и изложенное в коране. Представляет собой смесь христианства, иудейства и… …   Исторический словарь галлицизмов русского языка

  • ислам — См …   Словарь синонимов

  • ИСЛАМ — (араб. букв. покорность), монотеистическая религия, одна из мировых религий (наряду с христианством и буддизмом), ее последователи Мусульмане. Возник в Аравии в 7 в. Основатель Мухаммед. Ислам складывался под значительным влиянием христианства и… …   Большой Энциклопедический словарь

  • Ислам — немесе мұсылмандық (араб. момындық, бағыныштылық) әлемдік ірі діндердің бірі, негізінен Таяу және Орта Шығыс, Солтүстік Африка, Оңтүстік Шығыс Азия елдерінде, сол сияқты ортаазиялық, Солтүстік Кавказ, Закавказье, Татарстан және Башкирия… …   Философиялық терминдердің сөздігі

  • ИСЛАМ — (арабское, буквально покорность), монотеистическая религия, одна из мировых религий (наряду с христианством и буддизмом), ее последователи мусульмане. Возник в Аравии в 7 в. Основатель Мухаммед. Ислам складывался под значительным влиянием… …   Современная энциклопедия

  • Ислам — (по арабски покорность) монотеистическая религия, одна из мировых религий (наряду с христианством и буддизмом), её последователи мусульмане. Возник в Аравии в 7 в. Основатель Мухаммед. Ислам складывался под значительным влиянием христианства и… …   Исторический словарь

  • Ислам.ру — (независимый исламский информационный канал Islam.RU) российский сайт, посвящённый освещению положений ислама и его общественной, культурной роли. Действует при попечительстве благотворительного фонда им. Сайидмухаммада хаджи Абубакарова и… …   Википедия

  • Ислам — (араб., букв. покорность) монотеистическая религия, одна из мировых религий (наряду с христианством и буддизмом), ее последователи мусульмане. Возник в Аравии в 7 в. Основатель Мухаммед. Ислам складывался под значительным влиянием христианства и… …   Политология. Словарь.

Источник


Перевод «ислам» на арабский


الإسلام, إسلام, الدين — самые популярные переводы слова «ислам» на арабский.
Пример переведенного предложения: Фадель принял ислам, когда ему было двадцать три года. ↔ اعتنق فاضل الإسلام و عمره ثلاثة و عشرون سنة.

ислам


noun
существительное мужского рода


грамматика

  • Фадель принял ислам, когда ему было двадцать три года.

    اعتنق فاضل الإسلام و عمره ثلاثة و عشرون سنة.

  • Фадель принял ислам, когда ему было двадцать три года.

    اعتنق فاضل الإسلام و عمره ثلاثة و عشرون سنة.

  • Кроме того, в городе Холо развешены плакаты, призывающие христиан принимать ислам.

    علاوة على ذلك، قيل إنه يوجد في قرية يولو ملصقات تدعو المسيحيين إلى اعتناق الدين الإسلامي.

    • اسلام
    • إِسْلَام
    • الدِين
    • اَلْإِسْلَامُ

  • Glosbe

  • Google

  • Фадель принял ислам, когда ему было двадцать три года.

    اعتنق فاضل الإسلام و عمره ثلاثة و عشرون سنة.

  • إِسْلَام

    Фадель принял ислам, когда ему было двадцать три года.

    اعتنق فاضل الإسلام و عمره ثلاثة و عشرون سنة.

Совместное наступление группировок «Хизбул Ислам» и «Аш-Шабааб» в мае 2009 года первоначально представляло реальную угрозу, поскольку оно могло сместить переходное федеральное правительство, однако благодаря защите АМИСОМ и поставкам оружия и боеприпасов, предоставленных правительством Соединенных Штатов

وشكّل الهجوم المشترك الذي شنه حزبُ الإسلام — حركة الشباب في أيار/ مايو 2009، في البداية، تهديدا بإسقاط الحكومة الاتحادية الانتقالية، التي كان الفضل الكبير في نجاتها من الهزيمة للحماية التي وفرتها لها بعثة الاتحاد الأفريقي، وإلى شحنات الأسلحة والذخيرة التي أمدتها بها حكومة الولايات المتحدة(

Те, кто совершает, организует и провоцирует террористические нападения, утверждая, что делает это во имя ислама, на самом деле хотят превратить ислам в идеологию глобального страха.

فالذين يشنون الهجمات الإرهابية أو يحرضون عليها يدّعون أنهم يفعلون ذلك باسم الإسلام ويسعون إلى تحويل الإسلام إلى أيديولوجية لإثارة الخوف على نطاق عالمي.

В северной части Нигерии, где доминирует ислам, ситуация еще хуже, и девочки в возрасте от 9 до 12 лет в этом регионе насильно выдаются замуж, со всеми вытекающими из этого последствиями, включая образование у девочек пузырно-влагалищного свища, ужасного заболевания.

والوضع أسوأ من ذلك في شمال نيجيريا الذي يسيطر عليه المسلمون، وحيث أُجبرت فتيات على الزواج المبكر في سن التاسعة والثانية عشرة، مع ما يصحب ذلك من نتائج ومنها الإصابة بالناسور المثاني المهبلي، الذي يمثل خطرا رهيبا على الصحة.

Его работы отражали столь критический взгляд на ислам, что его лишили профессорской должности, а группа экстремистов, ссылаясь на исламское право, объявило его немусульманином, а следовательно лицом, не имеющим право жениться на мусульманке.

وقال إن بحوثه قد انتقدت الإسلام لدرجة لم يحرم معها فحسب من منصب الأستاذية، بل وأصدرت مجموعة من المتطرفين، متذرعة بالشريعة الإسلامية، قراراً بأنه غير مسلم، وأنه لا يحق له من ثم الزواج من مسلمة.

В Северном Ливане ливанские вооруженные силы уже пятнадцатую неделю ведут бои с боевиками «Фатх-аль-ислам» в лагере палестинских беженцев Нахр-эль-Баред.

أما في شمال لبنان، فقد دخلت المواجهة بين القوات المسلحة اللبنانية ومقاتلي فتح الإسلام في مخيم نهر البارد للاجئين الفلسطينيين أسبوعها الخامس عشر.

В соответствии с Конституцией официальной религией является ислам, при этом в стране в мире и гармонии также сосуществуют другие конфессии.

وينص الدستور، على أن الإسلام هي الديانة الرسمية للبلد كما أن العقائد الدينية الأخرى تمارس أيضاً في سلام ووئام.

Г-н Ислам (Бангладеш) говорит, что расовая дискриминация бросает вызов самой идее прав человека

السيد إسلام (بنغلاديش): قال إن التمييز العنصري يُعتَبر لطمة لذات فكرة حقوق الإنسان

К сожалению, ислам не впервые в истории становится объектом нападок, вызванных непониманием, ложными представлениями или предвзятой пропагандой, однако в нынешнем десятилетии мы стали свидетелями беспрецедентного роста исламофобии.

ومن المؤسف أنها ليست المرة الأولى في التاريخ، التي يُستهدف فيها الإسلام نتيجة قصور في الفهم أو تعميم مغرض مخل.

Ислам Каримов, президент Республики Узбекистан, в своих выступлениях на Генеральной Ассамблее не раз отмечал, что кризис вокруг Аральского моря- это крупнейшая экологическая и гуманитарная катастрофа в истории человечества

وقد أشار مرارا إسلام كريموف، رئيس جمهورية أوزبكستان، في الكلمات التي ألقاها أمام الجمعية العامة إلى أن أزمة بحر آرال قد تحولت إلى إحدى أكبر الكوارث الإيكولوجية والإنسانية في تاريخ البشرية

Комитет с озабоченностью отмечает, что представители далитов, обращающиеся в ислам или христианство во избежание дискриминации по кастовому признаку, как утверждается, утрачивают свои права в рамках программ позитивных действий, в отличие от обращенных в буддизм или в религию сикхов (статьи 5 d) vii) и 2 (2)).

وتلاحظ اللجنة بقلق أن الداليت الذين يعتنقون الإسلام أو المسيحية للفرار من التمييز الطبقي يفقدون استحقاقاتهم المنصوص عليها في برامج للإجراءات التصحيحية حسبما ورد، بخلاف الذين يعتنقون البوذية أو السيخية. (المادة 5 (د)`7` والمادة 2(2))

Г-н ДЖАСНАБАЙ (Чад) отвечает, что все религии – будь то мировые, как ислам или христианство, или другие, более поздние религиозные течения, — могут свободно исповедоваться, если их последователи не подстрекают к беспорядкам или к розни между общинами или конфессиями.

السيد جسناباي رد قائلاً إنه يمكن ممارسة جميع الأديان، سواء تعلق الأمر بالأديان الكبرى مثل الإسلام والمسيحية أو بحركات دينية أخرى أكثر حداثة طالما لم يقم أتباعها بالحض على الإخلال بالنظام العام أو على الكراهية بين الجماعات أو الأديان.

С докладом выступит г‐н Рисванул Ислам, Департамент по вопросам восстановления и реконструкции, МОТ.

وسيقدم الإحاطة السيد رضوان الإسلام، من شعبة الانتعاش والتعمير التابعة لمنظمة العمل الدولية.

Считая, что компас указывает на Исла де Муэрта, вы решили спасти меня от жуткой участи.

تعتقدين أن البوصلة تقود فقط إلى ( إيلا دي مورتا ) ولذا تأملين إنقاذي من مصير معتم

На встрече глав государств-учредителей Международного фонда спасения Арала в апреле 2009 года Президент Ислам Каримов выдвинул концепцию третьей фазы этой программы, рассчитанной на 2011–2015 годы.

واقترح الرئيس إسلام كريموف في اجتماع رؤساء الدول المؤسسة للصندوق الدولي لإنقاذ بحر آرال الذي عُقد في نيسان/أبريل 2009، إطارا للمرحلة الثالثة من هذا البرنامج، التي من المؤمل تنفيذها في الفترة 2011-2015.

Лидеры «Джейш аль-Ислам» подвергали критике Национальную коалицию сирийских революционных и оппозиционных сил, заявляя, что силы оппозиции должны возглавляться теми, кто воюет в Сирии, а не лидерами в изгнании.

وقد انتقد «جيش الإسلام» الائتلاف الوطني السوري، مشيرا إلى أن الجماعة يجب أن يقودها أولئك الذين يقاتلون في سوريا بدلا من القادة في المنفى.

Однако на практике государственной религией правительство считает ислам, его духом пронизаны законы страны, ее институты и политика

ولكن، في الواقع، تعتبر الدولة أن الإسلام هو دين الدولة ومنه تستمد قوانين البلد وعليه تبنى مؤسساته وسياساته

После того как 24 февраля 2003 года группа «Ансар аль-Ислам» была включена в перечень Комитета, учрежденного резолюцией 1267, власти Норвегии немедленно приняли меры по замораживанию имущества этой группы, а также одного проживающего в Норвегии физического лица, которое известно также как мулла Крекар.

عقب إدراج جماعة أنصار الإسلام في قائمة اللجنة 1267 في 24 شباط/فبراير 2003، اتخذت السلطات النرويجية تدابير فورية لتجميد أصولها المالية، بما فيها أصول أحد الأشخاص الذي يقيم في النرويج المدعو الملاّ كريكار.

Президент Республики Узбекистан Ислам Каримов и Президент Республики Корея Ли Мён Бак встретились с представителями деловых кругов двух стран.

والتقى رئيس جمهورية أوزبكستان إسلام كريموف ورئيس جمهورية كوريا لي ميونغ — باك مع ممثلي قطاعات الأعمال في البلدين.

Ислам отвергает идею дискриминации по признаку пола и поддерживает принцип равенства между людьми.

إن فكرة التمييز على أساس الجنس أمر يرفضه الدين الإسلامي الذي أرسى مبدأ المساواة بين الناس.

В то же время, давайте рассмотрим случай другой неприятной личности, голландского политика Геерта Уилдерса, которому в прошлом месяце был запрещён въезд в Соединённое Королевство. Здесь он планировал показ своего короткого фильма под названием «Фитна», в котором ислам представлен как вероисповедание терроритов.

ولكن فلنتأمل من ناحية أخرى قضية رجل آخر لا يتمتع بأي قدر من الجاذبية أيضاً، وهو السياسي الهولندي جيرت فيلدرز ، الذي مُـنِع في الشهر الماضي من دخول المملكة المتحدة، حيث كان يخطط لعرض فيلمه القصير «فِتنة»، والذي يصور الإسلام باعتباره عقيدة إرهابية.

ссылаясь на международный симпозиум по теме «Ислам и мир», проведенный Тунисской Республикой в сотрудничестве с Организацией Исламская конференция в Тунисе # апреля # года

وإذ يشير إلى الندوة الدولية حول «الإسلام والسلام» التي نظمتها الجمهورية التونسية بالتعاون مع الأمانة العامة لمنظمة المؤتمر الإسلامي في تونس من # إلى # إبريل

Эти нападения, по сообщениям, совершавшиеся членами Национальной партии Бангладеш (НПБ) и Джамаат-Э-Ислами, стоили жизни десяткам людей

وهذه الهجمات، التي نفذها أعضاء الحزب الوطني البنغلاديشي والجماعة الإسلامية، أودت بحياة العشرات من الأشخاص

Эти люди забывают о том, что ислам является монотеистической религией, в которой особое значение придается братству, любви, сосуществованию и терпимости.

ويغيب عن أذهان هؤلاء أن الإسلام أحد أديان التوحيد السماوية التي تؤكد تعاليمها السمحة على الإخاء والمحبة والتسامح والتعايش مع الآخر.

Название Ислам означает мир.

Более миллиарда человек, исповедующих ислам, верят, что Иисус — «пророк, больший, чем Авраам, Ной и Моисей».

يعلِّم الاسلام — الذي ينتمي اليه اكثر من مليار شخص حول العالم — ان يسوع هو «نبي اعظم من ابراهيم ونوح وموسى».

Источник


На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать грубую лексику.


На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать разговорную лексику.

Перевод «ислам» на арабский

Предложения


Кроме того, более 80 процентов населения исповедует ислам.



وفضلا عن ذلك فإن 80 في المائة من السكان يمارسون شعائر الإسلام.


отказ принять ислам или религию мужа.



رفض التحول إلى الإسلام أو إلى دين الزوج.


Население Джибути на 98% исповедует ислам.



وتبلغ نسبة المسلمين من سكان جيبوتي 98 في المائة.


Объектами таких расследований часто являются постоянно проживающие иностранцы, беженцы, просители убежища и мигранты, исповедующие ислам и/или имеющие арабское происхождение.



وكثيراً ما تستهدف مثل هذه التحقيقات من المقيمين الأجانب واللاجئين وملتمسي اللجوء والمهاجرين من المسلمين و/أو ذوي الأصول العربية.


Однако ислам почитают все наши граждане как официальную религию.



بيد أن الإسلام يحظى باحترام أبناء شعبنا كافة بوصفه الدين الرسمي.


Как и сам ислам, закон уважает множество религий и форм поклонения.



والقانون شأنه شأن الإسلام في حد ذاته، يكفل الاحترام للعديد من الديانات وأشكال العبادة.


Около 98 % населения исповедует ислам.



حوالي 94% من السكان يعتنقون الإسلام.


Существует огромное количество понятий, которые может означать ислам.



هناك مجموعة كبيرة من مختلف الأشياء التي يمكن أن يعنيها الإسلام.


отказ принять ислам или исповедуемую мужем религию.



(ز) رفض اعتناق الإسلام أو دين الزوج.


Поэтому ислам не может быть основой для решения сомалийского кризиса.



وعليه، فإنه لا يمكن أن يكون الإسلام أساساً لحل الأزمة الصومالية.


Более 1400 лет назад ислам определил принципы, которые позволили достичь следующих результатов:



فقبل أكثر من 400 1 سنة، أقام الإسلام المبادئ التي نجحت في إنجاز ما يلي:


Большинство жителей Аджарской автономии — этнические грузины, исповедующие ислам.



إن معظم سكان منطقة آجار المتمتعة بالحكم الذاتي هم ذوو أصل الجورجي اعتنقوا الإسلام.


Умеренный ислам должен иметь голос в Совете.



ويجب أن يحظى الإسلام المعتدل بصوت في المجلس.


Они действуют вопреки всему, чему учит ислам: миру, терпимости, состраданию, социальной справедливости и благу человечества.



إنهم يعملون ضد كل تعاليم الإسلام وهي تحديدا السلام والتسامح والرحمة والعدالة الاجتماعية وصلاح البشرية.


выражает глубокую обеспокоенность тем, что ислам и мусульмане часто необоснованно ассоциируются с нарушением прав и терроризмом;



يعرب عن قلقه البالغ إزاء الربط الخاطئ والمتكرر بين الإسلام والمسلمين وبين انتهاكات حقوق الإنسان والإرهاب.


К тому же ислам не требует от женщины смены фамилии после вступления в брак.



ولا يقتضي الإسلام أن تغير المرأة اسمها بعد الزواج، في الواقع.


ислам гарантирует защиту гражданских, социальных и экономических прав женщин-мусульманок;



يكفل الإسلام حماية الحقوق المدنية والاجتماعية والاقتصادية للمرأة المسلمة.


Эти офицеры приняли однопартийную социалистическую идеологию, которая позднее трансформировалась в политический ислам.



واعتمد العسكريون إيديولوجية اشتراكية من حزب واحد تحولت في وقت لاحق إلى الإسلام السياسي.


Основными религиями в стране являются православие и ислам.



والديانتان الرئيسيتان في البلد هما المسيحية-الأرثوذكسية والإسلام.


Впоследствии ислам стал государственной религией, а мусульманские законы применялись наряду с обычным правом.



وأضحى الإسلام فيما بعد دين الدولة وباتت القوانين الإسلامية تطبق إلى جانب القانون العرفي.

Ничего не найдено для этого значения.

Предложения, которые содержат ислам

Результатов: 1647. Точных совпадений: 1647. Затраченное время: 15 мс

Documents

Корпоративные решения

Спряжение

Синонимы

Корректор

Справка и о нас

Индекс слова: 1-300, 301-600, 601-900

Индекс выражения: 1-400, 401-800, 801-1200

Индекс фразы: 1-400, 401-800

Источник

Значение слова «ислам»

  • ИСЛА́М, -а, м. Одна из наиболее распространенных религий мира, последователями которой являются мусульмане; мусульманство.

    [От араб. islām — предание себя (воле аллаха)]

Источник (печатная версия): Словарь русского языка: В 4-х
т. / РАН,
Ин-т лингвистич.
исследований; Под ред. А. П. Евгеньевой. — 4-е изд., стер. — М.: Рус. яз.;
Полиграфресурсы,
1999;
(электронная версия): Фундаментальная
электронная
библиотека

  • Исла́м (араб. الإسلام‎ — «покорность», «предание себя [Богу]») — самая молодая и вторая по численности приверженцев после христианства мировая монотеистическая авраамическая религия. Число приверженцев — более 1,55 млрд человек, проживающих в более чем 120 странах мира. В 28 странах ислам является государственной или официальной религией. Большинство мусульман (85-90 %) составляют сунниты, остальные — шииты, ибадиты. Основатель ислама — Мухаммед (ум. в 632 году). Священная книга — Коран. Второй важ­ней­ший источник исламского вероучения и пра­ва — Сунна, представляющая совокупность преданий (хадис) об из­ре­че­ни­ях и деяни­ях про­ро­ка Мухаммеда. Язык богослужения — арабский. Приверженцев ислама называют мусульманами.

Источник: Википедия

  • ИСЛА’М, а, мн. нет, м. [араб. islām, букв. предание себя, подразумевается — воле аллаха] (книжн.). Магометанская религия, мусульманство.

Источник: «Толковый словарь русского языка» под редакцией Д. Н. Ушакова (1935-1940);
(электронная версия): Фундаментальная
электронная
библиотека

  • исла́м

    1. религ. монотеистическая религия, признающая Мухаммада пророком; одна из основных религий мира

  • Исла́м

    1. мужское имя ◆ Хочу подчеркнуть, что Ислам Каримов принял самое непосредственное участие в выработке основных его положений, и мы уверены, что это создаст очень хорошую базу для дальнейшего развития связей между Узбекистаном и Российской Федерацией. В. В. Путин, «Выступление встречи с И.А. Каримовым» // «Дипломатический вестник», 2004 г. (цитата из НКРЯ)

Источник: Викисловарь

Делаем Карту слов лучше вместе

Привет! Меня зовут Лампобот, я компьютерная программа, которая помогает делать
Карту слов. Я отлично
умею считать, но пока плохо понимаю, как устроен ваш мир. Помоги мне разобраться!

Спасибо! Я стал чуточку лучше понимать мир эмоций.

Вопрос: циновка — это что-то нейтральное, положительное или отрицательное?

Предложения со словом «ислам»

  • Отбирая самых здоровых мальчиков для своих армий, они сажали на кол и пытали мужчин, а женщин заставляли принимать ислам и выходить замуж за турок.
  • В сегодняшнем мире почти каждый пятый человек исповедует ислам.
  • Англичанин, добровольно принявший ислам, бывший спецназовец, много лет выполнял самые сложные и опасные поручения организации.
  • (все предложения)

Цитаты из русской классики со словом «ислам»

  • «Кто ж ты, из какой страны?» — «Ислам, мусульман».
  • Но нам нет никакой надобности ходить в мечеть, потому что мы вовсе не чувствуем потребности молиться пророку, не нуждаемся в истинах и утешениях алкорана и не верим магометову раю со всеми его гуриями, следовательно, от ислама ничем, не пользуемся и не хотим пользоваться».
  • Тема случилась странная: Григорий поутру, забирая в лавке у купца Лукьянова товар, услышал от него об одном русском солдате, что тот, где-то далеко на границе, у азиятов, попав к ним в плен и будучи принуждаем ими под страхом мучительной и немедленной смерти отказаться от христианства и перейти в ислам, не согласился изменить своей веры и принял муки, дал содрать с себя кожу и умер, славя и хваля Христа, — о каковом подвиге и было напечатано как раз в полученной в тот день газете.
  • (все
    цитаты из русской классики)

Сочетаемость слова «ислам»

  • радикальный ислам
    традиционный ислам
    политический ислам
  • ислам гирей
    ислам суннитского толка
    ислам суннитского направления
  • воины ислама
    распространение ислама
    мир ислама
  • ислам учит
    ислам требует
    ислам говорит
  • принять ислам
    исповедовать ислам
    перейти в ислам
  • (полная таблица сочетаемости)

Каким бывает «ислам»

Понятия со словом «ислам»

  • Исла́м (араб. الإسلام‎ — «покорность», «предание себя Богу») — самая молодая и вторая по численности приверженцев, после христианства, мировая монотеистическая авраамическая религия. Число приверженцев — более 1,8 млрд человек, проживающих в более чем 125 странах мира.

  • Деле́ние ми́ра в исламе — идея географического разделения по религиозному признаку. Обычно исламские богословы подразделяют страны мира на дар аль-ислам (территория ислама), дар аль-куфр (территория неверия), а также на дар аль-харб (территория войны), дар ас-сульх (территория мирного договора) или дар аль-худна (территория перемирия) и дар аль-хийад (нейтральная территория).

  • Почита́ние моги́л (араб. تعظيم القبور‎ — та’зи́м аль-кубу́р), поклонение им и совершение ритуальных обрядов возле них в самом начале распространения религии ислам было запретным и порицаемым, однако со временем, эти действия стали неотъемлемой частью быта многих мусульманских общин.

  • Расширение арабской империи после смерти пророка Мухаммеда привело к созданию халифатов, которые занимали обширную географическую область, и обращение в ислам распространялось, благодаря миссионерской деятельности. Эти ранние халифаты с мусульманской экономикой и торговлей и последующее расширение Османской империи привели к распространению ислама вне Мекки — до Атлантического и Тихого океанов — и созданию мусульманского мира. Торговля играла важную роль в распространении ислама в различных частях…

    Подробнее: Распространение ислама

  • Ку́льт святы́х в исламе (араб. تقديس الأولياء‎‎) сформировался под влиянием древних языческих верований, которые предполагали существование мелких божеств, почитаемых узким кругом местных верующих.

  • (все понятия)

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Дополнительно

Смотрите также

  • Отбирая самых здоровых мальчиков для своих армий, они сажали на кол и пытали мужчин, а женщин заставляли принимать ислам и выходить замуж за турок.

  • В сегодняшнем мире почти каждый пятый человек исповедует ислам.

  • Англичанин, добровольно принявший ислам, бывший спецназовец, много лет выполнял самые сложные и опасные поручения организации.

  • (все предложения)
  • радикальный ислам
  • ислам гирей
  • воины ислама
  • ислам учит
  • принять ислам
  • (полная таблица сочетаемости…)
  • ортодоксальный
  • радикальный
  • воинствующий
  • агрессивный
  • традиционный
  • (ещё…)
  • Склонение
    существительного «ислам»
  • Разбор по составу слова «ислам»
  • Как правильно пишется слово «ислам»

Источник

1. Что такое Ислам

Вы,
наверное, заметили, что «ислам» отличается от названий других религий.
Что же означает «Ислам»?

«Ислам» —
это арабское слово. В арабском языке гласные звуки (а, и,
у) обозначаются черточками над или под согласной буквой. Слово Ислам на арабском выглядит как буквы «иСЛаМ». «СЛМ» — это корень слова. Так, глагол
«иСЛаМа» переводится как «покорился». Это глагол. То есть, слово «Ислам»
дословно переводится «покорность Богу».

2. Кто такой мусульманин

Мусульманин,
или «МуСЛиМ» — это тоже арабское слово, образованное от того же корня – «СЛМ»
(покориться Богу). Приставка
«му» в арабском языке всегда используется, когда речь идет о человеке, персоне.
Например, слово «СаЛяТ» — это «молитва». А слово «МУ-СаЛиТ» переводится
«человек, которые молится», или «молящийся».

То же самое
и со словом «МУ-СЛиМ». Перевод этого слова – «человек, который покорился Богу.

То есть,
мусульманин, муслим – значит, «покорившийся Богу».

3. Кто такой Аллах

Некоторые
думают, что Аллах – это какой-то «другой» Бог. Давайте разберемся.

Знаете ли
вы, что, например, большинство христиан в мире не называют Бога «Бог»? Например, в Америке говорят «God» (Год). Во Франции «Dieu» (Дьё). И так далее.

Так,
«Аллах» — это слово Бог на арабском языке. В мире много христиан-арабов
(например, в Ливане, Египте). И они тоже называют Бога – Аллах. Более того, они
тоже говорят Аллах Акбар, что переводится «Господь Велик». Если заглянуть в Библию на арабском языке, то в первой же строчке встретится слово «Аллах».

Почему все-таки мусульмане всего мира используют слово Аллах, а не другие переводы?

Помимо
того, что это самое древнее имя Бога еще с начала существования человечества
(Алах, Элох, Аллах – все родственные слова с арамейского, иврита, арабского). Есть и еще несколько других преимуществ:

1) Слово «бог» на
русском и многих других языках употребляется для обозначения любого божества.
Например — бог солнца , бог плодородия. Разница обычно в написании маленькой
или заглавной буквы.

Так,
«Аллах» означает только нашего Всевышнего Создателя и больше никого. В арабском
языке не существует маленьких или заглавных букв. Для обозначения любого
божества есть другое слово. А «Аллах» – это только Всевышний Господь.

2) Слово «Бог» на
русском и многих других языках может употребляться во множественном числе.
Например – боги древней Греции, языческие боги.

Так,
«Аллах» не имеет множественного числа. Это большое преимущество, так как
Бог у нас — Один Создатель.

3) Слово «Бог» на
русском и многих других языках может употребляться в женском роде – богиня.

Так,
«Аллах» не имеет ни женского, ни мужского рода.

Поэтому мусульмане всех народностей говорят — Аллах, – это имя Бога наиболее полно выражает Его
Сущность.

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Home>Слова, начинающиеся на букву И>ислам

Слово Ислам на разных языках

В таблице ниже Вы увидите, как будет слово ислам на разных языках. Это перевод слова ислам почти на все языки мира (более 80 других языков).

Как сказать ислам на Европейских Языках

Как сказать ислам на Азиатских Языках

Как сказать ислам на Ближневосточных Языках

Как сказать ислам на Африканских Языках

Как сказать ислам на Австронезийских Языках

Как сказать ислам на Других Иностранных Языках

абвгдеёжзийклмнопрстуфхцчшщъыьэюя

Как сказать Ислам на Европейских Языках

Язык Как сказать ислам
Албанский Islam [править]
Английский Islam [править]
Баскский Islama [править]
Белорусский іслам [править]
Болгарский ислям [править]
Боснийский islam [править]
Валлийский islam [править]
Венгерский iszlám [править]
Галисийский Islam [править]
Голландский islam [править]
Греческий Ισλάμ [править]
Датский islam [править]
Идиш איסלאם [править]
Ирландский Ioslam [править]
Исландский islam [править]
Испанский islam [править]
Итальянский Islam [править]
Каталонский islam [править]
Латышский islams [править]
Литовский islamas [править]
Македонский исламот [править]
Мальтийский Islam [править]
Немецкий Islam [править]
Норвежский Islam [править]
Польский islam [править]
Португальский islão [править]
Румынский islam [править]
Сербский ислам [править]
Словацкий islam [править]
Словенский Islam [править]
Украинский іслам [править]
Финский islam [править]
Французский Islam [править]
Хорватский islam [править]
Чешский islám [править]
Шведский islam [править]
Эстонский islam [править]

Как сказать Ислам на Азиатских Языках

Язык Как сказать ислам
Азербайджанский islam [править]
Армянский իսլամ [править]
Бенгальский ইসলাম [править]
Бирманский အစ္စလာမ်ဘာသာ [править]
Вьетнамский Hồi giáo [править]
Грузинский ისლამი [править]
Гуджарати ઇસ્લામ [править]
Казахский Ислам [править]
Каннада ಇಸ್ಲಾಂ ಧರ್ಮ [править]
Китайский (Традиционный) 伊斯蘭教 [править]
Китайский (Упрощенный) 伊斯兰教 [править]
Корейский 이슬람교 [править]
Кхмерский សាសនាអ៊ីស្លាម [править]
Лаосский ອິດສະລາມ [править]
Малаялам ഇസ്ലാം [править]
Маратхи इस्लाम [править]
Монгольский Ислам [править]
Непальский इस्लाम [править]
Сингальский ඉස්ලාම් [править]
Таджикский Ислом [править]
Тайский ศาสนาอิสลาม [править]
Тамильский இஸ்லாமியம் [править]
Телугу ఇస్లాం మతం [править]
Турецкий İslamiyet [править]
Узбекский Islom [править]
Урду اسلام [править]
Хинди इसलाम [править]
Хмонг Islam [править]
Японский イスラム教 [править]

Много лишнего?

Можно убрать рекламу и оставить только нужные языки

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Как сказать Ислам на Ближневосточных Языках

Язык Как сказать ислам
Арабский الإسلام [править]
Иврит האיסלאם [править]
Персидский اسلام [править]

Как сказать Ислам на Африканских Языках

Язык Как сказать ислам
Африкаанс Islam [править]
Зулу Islam [править]
Игбо Islam [править]
Йоруба Islam [править]
Сесото Islam [править]
Сомалийский Islam [править]
Суахили Uislamu [править]
Хауса Musulunci [править]
Чева Islam [править]

Как сказать Ислам на Австронезийских Языках

Язык Как сказать ислам
Индонезийский Islam [править]
Малагасийский Islam [править]
Малайский Islam [править]
Маори Ihirama [править]
Себуано Islam [править]
Филиппинский Islam [править]
Яванский Islam [править]

Как сказать Ислам на Других Иностранных Языках

Язык Как сказать ислам
Гаитянский Креольский Islam [править]
Латынь Islam [править]
Эсперанто Islamo [править]

Другие слова рядом со словом ислам

  • искушать
  • искушение
  • искушенный
  • ислам
  • исландец
  • Исландия
  • исландский

Цитирование

«Ислам на разных языках.» In Different Languages, https://www.indifferentlanguages.com/ru/%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE/%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC.

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Слова по Алфавиту

Источник

предание себя Богу, покорность. Так называется монотеистическая (авраамическая) религия, истоки которой непосредственно восходят к самым древнейшим временам. В окончательном виде эта религия была представлена в проповедях пророка Мухаммада, который получил ее в виде Божественного откровения (вахй). Ислам (в значении покорности Богу) — это религия, которую исповедовали все Божьи посланники и их последователи. Еще одним значением слова Ислам, корень которого составляют буквы С-Л-М, является слово СаЛаМ (мир). Люди, которые покорились Богу, называются муСЛиМами (мусульманами). Мусульмане обязаны жить в мире друг с другом, обществом, окружающим миром, всеми силами стремиться к миру и желать его. Обобщив эти значения буквосочетания С-Л-М можно сказать, что оно означает состояние покорности единому Творцу и желание жить в мире; причем для поддержания этого состояния необходимо постоянно предпринимать определенные действия.

История и причины возникновения Ислама

Аяты Корана упоминают о том, что Ислам является единственной верной религией человечества и его последователями в той или иной степени были все пророки. Например, согласно аятам Корана, покорившимися Аллаху были такие известные Божьи посланники, которые, также как и Мухаммад, получали непосредственное откровение от Аллаха: «Mы вeдь oткpыли тeбe (Мухаммаду) тaк жe, кaк oткpыли Hyxy и пpopoкaм пocлe нeгo, и Mы oткpыли Ибpaxимy, и Иcмaилy, и Иcxaкy, и Йaкyбy и кoлeнaм, и Иce, и Aййyбy, и Йyнycy, и Xapyнy, и Cyлaймaнy, и дaли Mы Дayдy Пcaлтыpь. (4: 163)». Предавшимися Богу и ханифом (верным Аллаху) в Коране и Сунне назван такой пророк Аллаха, как Ибрахим (2: 131-132; 2: 135) Однако позднее, последователи древних пророков отошли от первоначального пути, который им был указан Аллахом, и стали называть себя последователями других религий. Постепенно искажались и изменялись и священные тексты древних книг. По этой причине, всякий раз для обновления истинной веры (Ислама) Аллах отправлял к различным народам своих посланников, последним из которых был Мухаммад, который принес человечеству исламскую религию в окончательном виде. После него посланников больше не будет. Вместе с этим, необходимо отметить, что, несмотря на наличие в исламских источниках понятия предания себя Богу (Ислама) для древних обществ, тем не менее, Исламом в смысле окончательно оформленной и завершенной религии Аллаха, названо откровение, переданное Мухаммаду (например, Коран, 3: 19; 6: 125). Об Исламе, как о конкретной религии, его завершенности и истинности однозначно говорится в аяте Корана: «Сегодня Я завершил [ниспослание] вам вашей религии, довел до конца Мою милость и одобрил для вас в качестве религии ислам» (5: 3). В хадисе из сборника Ахмада ибн Ханбаля пророк Мухаммад говорит: «Аллах послал меня с Исламом» (Муснад, IV, 446). В другом хадисе у пророка спросили о том, с чем он послан и в ответ он сказал: «С Исламом» (Насаи, Закят, 1, 72). После пророчества Мухаммада все предыдущие религии были отменены Аллахом и их основные принципы, в усовершенствованной форме, вошли в Ислам. После этого никакая другая религия не будет принята Аллахом: «Если же кто изберет иную веру кроме Ислама, то такое поведение не будет одобрено, и в будущей жизни он окажется среди потерпевших урон» (Коран, 3: 85). Что же касается мусульман (покорных Богу) живших до Мухаммада, то те из них, которые веровали и неукоснительно следовали положениям Божественной веры, принесенной предыдущими пророками-расулями (Адамом, Нухом, Ибрахимом, Исой, Мусой), были на верном пути и удостоятся милости Аллаха. Пророк Мухаммад оставил после себя бесценное наследие, главным из которого было Божественное откровение — Коран, а также его жизненный пример — Сунна. Благодаря этим источникам мусульмане смогли создать величайшую мировую систему ценностей, которая охватила все сферы человеческой и социальной сферы. Одной из самых сложных задач, которые предстояло решить следующим поколениям после пророчества Мухаммада — это создание теоретической научной базы Ислама и систематизация положений, выраженных в смыслах Божественных откровений, в стройное и последовательное вероучение. На протяжении почти 300-400 лет после пророка в этом направлении велись серьезные работы, и исламские ученые справились с этой сложнейшей задачей. На основании коранических аятов и хадисов пророка ими были сформулированы теоретические и практические основы Исламской религии, которые остались неизменными до сегодняшнего дня. Военно-политические, экономические, просветительские и другие внушительные успехи различных поколений мусульман привели к тому, что Ислам стал мировой религией. Его последователями являются многие миллионы людей различных национальностей и рас на всей планете. Возникновения и развитие Ислама в первую очередь связано с внеземной, внеопытной причиной, непосредственным Божественным откровением и предопределением. Достаточно сказать, что арабы, на протяжении многих веков не игравшие никакой роли в мировых процессах, жившие исключительно своим традиционным образом жизни вблизи от древнейших центров человеческой цивилизации, вдруг, чудесным образом, на протяжении всего нескольких десятилетий добились невиданных по размаху в мировой практике успехов во всех областях общественно-политической, экономической, военной, научной и прочих сферах. Исламская религия послужила причиной и основой новой мировой цивилизации, нового типа мышления, нового уклада жизни которые воздействовали на весь ход дальнейшей истории и всего человечества. Никакими объективными общественными, историческими и политическими причинами невозможно объяснить столь чудесное возникновение и стремительное развитие Ислама и мусульманского общества и государства. В то же время, полностью игнорировать социальные или исторические предпосылки для возникновения Ислама, связанные с кризисом традиционного образа жизни арабского общества, социальным неравенством, процессов этнокультурной консолидации в Аравии и перехода от родоплеменного строя к раннеклассовым отношениям тоже нельзя. Эти объективные предпосылки для начала мусульманского движения, возможно были, однако все это не носило решающего значения, так как только эти причины сами по себе не могли бы привести к возникновению за ничтожно малый исторический отрезок времени такой величайшей цивилизации, развитой во всех отношениях, как исламский мир. Поэтому невозможно объяснить причины возникновения Ислама лишь потребностью в идеологическом обосновании политико-экономических и культурных перемен в арабском обществе. Тем более что в самом Коране нет призывов к объединительным процессам в арабском обществе, началу арабского возрождения. Там нет также никаких акцентов в сторону решения каких-то социальных или политических проблем. Это дает основание говорить о том, что Мухаммад, в своих проповедях не призывал к решению всех этих проблем в качестве первоочередной задачи своей деятельности. Нет также в Коране, хадисах и исламской доктрине в целом, никаких националистических призывов. Происхождение Ислама также не может быть связано с заимствованием положений этой религии из Иудаизма и Христианства, так как Мухаммад рос и формировался в Мекке, в языческой среде. Причем он был безграмотным и не мог собрать и переработать христианские и иудейские тексты так, чтобы составить на их основе целостное и совершенное учение. Он также почти не имел никаких контактов ни с иудеями, ни с христианами. Согласно историческим сообщениям, он всего два раза встретился с родственником своей жены Хадиджы Варакой, который был христианином. Все его другие встречи с иудеями или христианами в мекканский период его деятельности носили случайный или деловой характер. Всех этих кратковременных встреч было недостаточно для детального ознакомления с Христианством или Иудаизмом.

Столпы Ислама

Согласно воззрениям подавляющего большинства мусульман (суннитов), мусульманское мировоззрение связано с конкретными практическими постулатами этой религии, которые условно называются «столпами Ислама». В хадисе, приводимом в сборниках авторитетных мухаддисов, упоминается диалог пророка Мухаммада и ангела Джибрила, который происходил в присутствии свидетелей из числа сподвижников пророка. Джибрил спросил его:

«О Мухаммад, расскажи мне об Исламе!». Пророк ответил следующим образом: «Ты должен засвидетельствовать, что нет божества, кроме Аллаха, совершать молитву, выплачивать закят, поститься в месяц рамадан, совершать паломничество к священному дому, если на то будет возможность». (Хадис приводится у Муслима)

Таким образом, «Столпы Ислама» сводятся к 5 постулатам:

1. Соблюдение строжайшего единобожия (Таухид). Предписание засвидетельствовать принятие единобожия и посланническую миссию пророка Мухаммада, выражено в своеобразном символе веры Ислама — шахаде: «Ашхаду анлаиляха илляллах ва ашхаду анна мухаммадан абдуху ва расулюху (Свидетельствую, что нет бога, кроме Аллаха, и свидетельствую, что Мухаммад Его раб и посланник)». В этой формулировке сосредоточена основная идея религии Бога, из которой проистекают все остальные теоретические и практические положения Ислама.

2. Необходимость совершения ежедневной пятикратной молитвы-салат (перс. намаз). Это поклонение Аллаху посредством тела. Намаз совершается по единой форме, в предписанное время со строго определенными положениями тела (См. Салат). Во время молитвы читаются коранические суры.

3. Необходимость обязательного материального пожертвования — закят. Мусульманин обязан ежегодно отдавать часть своих заработанных средств в помощь обездоленным и беднякам (См. Закят). Закят взимается в строго определенном количестве. Малоимущие освобождены от выплаты закята. Закят — это разновидность поклонения Аллаху посредством имущества.

4. Необходимость соблюдения поста в месяц лунного календаря — Рамадан. Суть поста заключается в поклонении Богу посредством воздержания от пищи и воды в светлое время суток, более усердным служением и большим воздержанием от грехов в этот месяц (См. Саум).

5. Необходимость совершения паломничества в Мекку. В период паломничества, совершаемого мусульманами к главной святыне Ислама — мечети «аль-Харам» (Запретная), все помыслы верующего должны быть устремлены к Творцу. Этот столп Ислама обязателен только для тех мусульман, которые материально и физически в состоянии совершить его (См. Хадж).

Столпы веры

Понятие Ислама тесно переплетается и неразрывно связано с понятием веры (имана). Под обобщающим названием «Столпы веры» понимаются идеологические основы религии. Сам пророк Мухаммад касался этого вопроса в нескольких хадисах. Но, по мнению всех суннтских улемов, наиболее всеохватным и конкретным по данному пункту является хадис, приведенный у Бухари и Муслима, где упоминается о том, что на вопрос ангела Джибрила (Гавриила) [мир ему] о сути веры Мухаммад ответил следующим образом:

«Суть веры в том, чтобы ты верил в Бога, Его ангелов, в его писания, его посланников, и в последний день и чтобы верил ты в предопределение, как хорошее, так и дурное». Таким образом, в Исламе существует 6 основополагающих мировоззренческих постулата, ставших своеобразным мусульманским «кредо»:

1. Вера в Аллаха — Творца всего сущего. Включает в себя ряд положений, главным из которых является единобожие (См. Таухид).

2. Вера в Ангелов. Ангелы — это сотворенные Аллахом из света существа, лишенные свободы воли (См. Малаика). Они являются исполнителями воли Божьей.

3. Вера в Священные Писания ниспосланные Аллахом посланникам. Имеются ввиду Божественные откровения, которые ниспосылались посланникам Аллаха в различные периоды истории человечества. Мусульмане признают истинные тексты Тауры (Торы), Забура (Псалмов) Инджила (Евангелия) и Корана, а также более древних свитков, ниспосланных к нескольким пророкам. Однако все предыдущие писания отменены Кораном.

4. Вера в пророков (посланников) Божьих. Кораном и Сунной предписывается принять истинными всех посланников Аллаха. Посланников, согласно одному из хадисов пророка Мухаммада, было 124000. Они были посланы ко всем народам и племенам. Но посланником ко всему человечеству был только Мухаммад.

5. Вера в Судный день. Включает в себя веру во вселенскую катастрофу, грядущее воскресение, Божий суд и наличие ада и рая (См. Ахира).

6. Вера в предопределение. Необходимо верить в то, что Аллах предопределил судьбы всего сущего (См. Кадар и Каза).

Развитие исламской общественно-политической и философско-правовой мысли

Спустя несколько десятилетий после своего возникновения, Ислам стал превращаться в мировую религию. С этого времени начали меняться и общественно-политические и экономические условия в мусульманском государстве — Халифате, который распространил свою власть на обширных территориях Азии, Африки и Европы. На протяжении времени появились новые проблемы, связанные с бурным прогрессом мусульманского общества, а также появилась необходимость рационального объяснения многих постулатов религии, которые до этого просто принимались на веру. Еще одной причиной развития мусульманской общественно-политической и философской мысли было то обстоятельство, что Ислам стал распространяться на территориях, которые с древнейших времен были центрами мировой цивилизации. Здесь были распространены древнейшие религиозно-философские учения, многие народы исповедовали такие религии, как Христианство, Зороастризм, Буддизм. Выйдя на мировую арену, мусульмане были вынуждены классифицировать и систематизировать положения Исламской религии, создавать мировоззренческие и правовые школы, отвечать рациональными доводами на вопросы оппонентов, заниматься апологетическими проблемами.

Богатейшее наследие, которое основывалось на положениях Божественного откровения и традициях ранних мусульман (в лице первых халифов и сподвижников пророка) содержало в себе большой потенциал, на основании которого последующие поколения мусульманских мыслителей создали уникальную мусульманскую цивилизацию. Возникшие мировоззренческие и правовые школы вели между собой бурную полемику, в результате которых развивали и обосновывали положения своих доктрин. Необходимо отметить, что все эти процессы прогресса мысли не противоречили положениям раннего Ислама, где все это являлось допустимым с самого начала и получило название иджтихада (См. Иджтихад). Первой серьезной проблемой в мусульманском обществе стала проблема верховной власти в мусульманском государстве. По этому вопросу еще в период правления двух последних Праведных халифов Османа и Али, из основной массы мусульманского общества выделились две группы — хариджитов, выступавших за выборы халифов (См. Хариджиты) и шиитов, которые считали законным халифом Али и его прямых потомков (См. Шииты). Первоначально эти группы являлись только политическими партиями. В качестве самостоятельных религиозных течений в Исламе они стали формироваться значительно позднее, когда началась выработка их религиозно-догматических положений. Доктринальными проблемами, по отношению к которым мусульманские ученые разошлись во мнениях, стали стали:

1. Проблема сущности и атрибутов Аллаха (их наличия или отсутствия):

2. Проблема предопределения и свободы воли человека;

3. Проблема отношения грехов к вере мусульманина (а также положение мусульман-грешников);

4. Проблема сущности Корана (его сотворенность или несотворенность);

5. Проблема возможности лицезрения Аллаха в раю;

6. Проблема соотношения доводов разума с доводами Божественного Откровения;

7. Проблема методологии трактования тех или иных аятов Корана;

8. Проблема методологии отбора и трактования хадисов пророка Мухаммада (их достоверность или недостоверность).

По всем этим вопросам различные мусульманские школы выработали свои учения (Подробнее о позициях каждой из школ см. в разделах Матуридизм, Ашаризм, Салафизм, Джабриты, Кадариты, Мутазилиты, Мурджииты, Хариджиты, Шииты). Правовые проблемы являются одними из самых важных в исламской религии. Мусульманские правоведы разработали, систематизировали и классифицировали положения мусульманского права из аятов Корана и хадисов. При этом, они также использовали такие альтернативные источники иджтихада, как кыяс, истихсан, орф, масалих аль-мурсала и т.д. В результате примененной методики и подходов к различным проблемам, сформировались различные мусульманские правовые школы-мазхабы. Подробнее о правовых школах в Исламе см. Ханафитский мазхаб, Маликитский мазхаб, Шафиитский мазхаб, Ханбалитский мазхаб, Захиритский мазхаб, Зейдитский мазхаб, Джафаритский мазхаб.

Наряду с мировоззренческими и правовыми школами в Исламе формировались также и различные мистические учения, которые больше всего были представлены в суфийской традиции (См. Тасаввуф). Большое развитие в мусульманском мире получила также философия (См. Фалсафа)

Несмотря на наличие всех этих учений, подавляющее большинство мусульман является суннитами (Подробнее см. [ref]Ахль ас-Сунна ва’ль-Джамаа[/ref]).

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